All about Temples / Mandirs / Devalayas
Hindu temple
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A Hindu mandir (Sanskrit: मन्दिर mandir, प्रासाद prāsāda) is a house of god(s).[1] It is a space and
structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with
symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.[2] A Hindu temple, states
George Michell, functions as a place of transcendence, where man may cross over
(do tirtha) from the world of
illusion to one of knowledge and truth.[1]
The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple,
states Stella Kramrisch,[2] are rooted in Vedic
traditions. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos - presenting the
good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic
time and the essence of life - symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa and karma.[3][4]
The spiritual principles symbolically
represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India
(for example, Vedas, Upanishads), while their structural rules are described in
various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu
Sastras).[5][6] The layout, the motifs,
the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms,
and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.[2] A Hindu temple is a
spiritual destination for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks around
which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy flourished.[7][8]
Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse
locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different
deities and regional beliefs.[9] Yet, almost all Hindu
temples share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South
Asia particularly India and Nepal, in southeast Asian countries such as
Cambodia, Vietnam and islands of Indonesia and Malaysia[10][11]and countries such as
Fiji, Mauritius, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Europe and North America with
a significant Hindu community.[12] The current state and
outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they
evolved over several millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts
between Hinduism and Islam since the 12th century.[13]
The significance and meaning of a Hindu
Temple[
Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts,
the ideals of dharma, beliefs,
values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man,
deities, and the UniversalPurusa in a sacred space.[14]
The 9x9 (81) grid
‘’Parama Sayika’’ layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples.
It is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of
symmetry, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer,
Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; while inner Devika padas
signify aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the
concentric layer of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these layers
surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and the site for
temple’s primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very center of Brahma padas
is Grabhgriya (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in
everything and everyone.[2]
In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a
place for Tirtha - pilgrimage.[2] It is a sacred site whose
ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of Hindu
way of life.[14] All the cosmic elements
that create and sustain life are present in a Hindu temple - from fire to
water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine,
from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to the eternal nothingness yet
universality at the core of the temple.[2]
Susan Lewandowski states[5] that the underlying
principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are one,
everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid
mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and
statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles
of human life - the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the
pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the
pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life)
and the pursuit of moksha (release,
self-knowledge).[15][16] At the center of the
temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere
hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle,
the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects
everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to
encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one’s mind, and trigger the
process of inner realization within the devotee.[2] The specific process is
left to the devotee’s school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu
temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.
In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing
line between the secular and the sacred.[5] In the same spirit, Hindu
temples are not just sacred spaces, they are also secular spaces. Their meaning
and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily
life, offering thus a social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to
mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or
commemorate marriages,[17]commemorate the birth of
a child, other significant life events, or mark the death of a loved one. In
political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for the
succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity
thrived.[18]
The forms and designs of Hindu Temples
Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a
house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter which serves as a
deity’s home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or
she would visit a friend or relative. In Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are
venues forpuja,
which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is the honored, and where devotee
calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of
Hinduism, the person may simply perform jap, or meditation, or yoga, or
introspection in his or her temple.
A palace-themed temples are more elaborate,
often monumental architecture.
The site
The appropriate site for a temple, suggest
ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers
bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without
fear of injury or harm.[2] These harmonious places
were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places
where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.
Hindu temple sites cover
a wide range. The most common sites are those near water bodies, embedded in
nature, such as the above at Badami, Karnataka.
The gods always play
where lakes are,
where the sun’s rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,
and where clear waterpaths are made by swans
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.
The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,
water as their garment, carps for their zone,
the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,
the confluence of rivers as their hips,
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.
The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.
where the sun’s rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,
and where clear waterpaths are made by swans
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.
The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,
water as their garment, carps for their zone,
the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,
the confluence of rivers as their hips,
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.
The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.
— Brhat
Samhita 1.60.4-8, 6th Century C
While major Hindu temples are recommended
at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also
be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they
recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple
with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water
is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may
also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter
93,[20] inside caves and carved
stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking
beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the
head of a town street.
The manuals
Ancient builders of Hindu temples created
manuals of architecture, called Vastu-Sastra (literally, science of
dwelling, Vas-tu is a composite Sanskrit word Vas means reside, tu means you);
these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling).[21] There exist many
Vastu-Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by Thakkura Pheru,
describing where and how temples should be built.[22][23] By the 6th century AD,
Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in
India.[24] Vastu-Sastra manuals
included chapters on home construction, town planning,[21] and how efficient
villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens
within them to achieve harmony with nature.[25][26] While it is unclear,
states Barnett,[27] as to whether these
temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they
were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning
and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu
social and spiritual life.
Ancient India produced
many Sanskrit manuals for Hindu temple design and construction, covering
arrangement of spaces (above) to every aspect of its completion. Yet, the
Silpins were given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity.[28]
The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by
Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara sometime in ninth or tenth century CE, is
another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture.[29] Silpa Prakasa describes
the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16
emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles
were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in eastern states of India. Other
ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that
different parts of India developed, invented and added their own
interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple
building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and
emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types
described in Silpa Prakasa.[29] Silpa Prakasa provides
brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such asPancaratra
Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith[30] and Silpa Ratnakara
compiled by Narmada Sankara[31] provide a more extensive
list of Hindu temple types.
Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple
construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include
Sutradhara Mandana’s Prasadamandana (literally, manual for
planning and building a temple).[32] Manasara, a text of South Indian
origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century AD, is a guidebook on
South Indian temple design and construction.[5][33] Isanasivagurudeva
paddhati is another Sanskrit text
from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south
and central India.[34][35] In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited
ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction
of Nagara style of Hindu temples.[28][36][37]
Elements of a Hindu temple
in Kalinga style. There are many Hindu temple styles, but they almost
universally share common geometric principles, symbolism of ideas, and
expression of core beliefs.[2]
The plan
A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical
design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite
Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at
the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling
structure.[38] Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[22] The design lays out a
Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central
beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create
the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the
space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is
considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and
human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in
everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the
other.[2] The square is divided
into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas.[28][39] Each pada is conceptually
assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central
square(s) of the 64 or 81 grid is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused
with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.
The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka
Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the
most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where
diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.[2][28]
The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and
of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India,
particularly in ‘‘Prakaras’’.[40] The symmetric
Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple
superstructure with two or more attached squares.[41] The temples face sunrise,
and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada
facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by
the padas of Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on
other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and
demi-gods; while west and south feature demons and demi-gods related to the
underworld.[42] This vastu purusha
mandala plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on
Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional
creativity and variations.[43][44]
Beneath the mandala’s central square(s) is
the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal
Spirit, the highest reality, the
purusha.[45] This space is sometimes
referred to as garbha-griya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square,
windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal
essence.[38] In or near this space is
typically a murti (idol). This is the main deity idol, and this varies with
each temple. Often it is this idol that gives the temple a local name, such as
Visnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple,
Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and
others.[14] It is this garbha-griya
which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge,[46]or vision[38]).
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a
superstructure with a dome called Shikhara in north India, and Vimana in south India, that
stretches towards the sky.[38] Sometimes, in makeshift
temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the
top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical
or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles
and squares (see below).[2]Scholars suggest that
this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the
abode of gods according to Vedic mythology.
A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or
Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These
spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical
precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu
temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric
layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards
the sky.[2][47]
In larger temples, the central space
typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and
ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence.[2] Often this space is
visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the
devotee. In some temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others
they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they
may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings
typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and
necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is
called pradakshina.[38]
Large temples also have pillared halls
called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims
and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in
newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega
temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but
these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical
precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is
mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,[48] each unique yet also
repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to
as “an organism of repeating cells”.[18]
An illustration of Hindu temple Spires
(Shikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and rotating-squares
principle. The left is from Vijayanagar in Karnataka, the right
is from Pushkar in Rajasthan.
The ancient texts on Hindu temple design,
the Vastupurusamandala and Vastu Sastras, do not limit themselves
to the design of a Hindu temple.[49] They describe the temple
as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a
diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the
temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.[2][25]
Exceptions to the square
grid principle
Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit
the perfect square grid principle.[50] However, there are some
exceptions. For example, the Teli-ka-mandir in Gwalior, built in
the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle in 2:3 proportion.
Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2,
1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect
intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a
mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic
ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple
near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael
Meister suggests that these
exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were
guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and
aesthetic independence.[28]
The symbolism
A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction
of the universe and universal principles that make everything in it function.[2][51] The temples reflect Hindu
philosophy and its diverse views on cosmos and Truths.[48][52]
Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical
order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s)
nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic,
monistic, or atheistic.[53] Within this diffuse and
open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience,
and referred to as kṣaitrajña (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ[54]). It defines spiritual
practice as one’s journey towards moksha, awareness of
self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a
consciousness that is liberated and content.[55][56] A Hindu temple reflects
these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large
communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family
- a small, private space where he or she experiences darsana.
Darsana is itself a symbolic word. In
ancient Hindu scripts, darsana is the name of six methods or alternate
viewpoints of understanding Truth.[57] These are Nyaya,
Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta - each of which flowered into
their own schools of Hinduism, each of which are considered valid, alternate
paths to understanding Truth and realizing Self in the Hindu way of life.
From names to forms, from images to stories
carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu temple.
Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, sex, connection and emotional
pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in
Hindu temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred
texts of Hindu, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same
principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example,
Brihadaranyaka Upanisad at 4.3.21, recites:
In the embrace of his
beloved a man forgets the whole world,
everything both within and without;
in the same way, he who embraces the Self,
knows neither within nor without.
everything both within and without;
in the same way, he who embraces the Self,
knows neither within nor without.
— Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad, 7th Century BC
The architecture of Hindu temples is also
symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and it surroundings with the
divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace,
transitioning from the secular towards the sacred,[60] inviting the visitor
inwards towards the Brahma pada and temple’s central core, as well as lifting
him upwards into a symbolic space marked by its spire (shikhara, vimana). The
ancient temples had grand intricately carved entrances but no doors, and lacked
a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests Edmund Leach,[60] a boundary and gateway
separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu
tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture,
where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and
flowed into the sacred.[61] The Hindu temple has
structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64 grid, or other
geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core
space which had just one opening for darsana. The temple space is laid out in a
series of courts (mandappas). The outermost regions may incorporate the
negative and suffering side of life with symbolism of evil, asuras and
rakshashas (demons); but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When
present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as
human space, followed by another inner Devika padas space and symbolic arts
incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods.
This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to
the core of the temple, where resides the main idol as well as the space for
the Purusa and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The
symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is
similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of the world.[62]
The teams that built Hindu temples
Ancient Indian texts call the craftsmen and
builders of temples as ‘‘Silpin’’ (Sanskrit: शिल्पिन्[63]), derived from
‘‘Silpa’’.[64]One of earliest mentions
of Sanskrit word Silpa is in Atharvaveda, from
about 1000 BC, which scholars have translated as any work of art.[65] Other scholars suggest
that the word Silpa has no direct one word translation in English, nor does the
word ‘‘Silpin’’. Silpa, explains Stella Kramrisch,[34] is a multicolored word
and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression
and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly a Shilpin, notes Kramrisch, is
a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science,
culture, skill, rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine
form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the art works
and sculpture within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to
deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in
number,[66] and Vidya (science) that
were of 32 types.[34]
The Hindu manuals of temple construction
describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The
general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi
(alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana
(arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would
continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25.[67][68] Apart from specialist
technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a
Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider
themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences
and mathematics, painting and geography.[22] Further they are kind,
free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy
disposition, and ardent in everything they do.[34]
According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple
project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru,
spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design
the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons,
painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors).[22][36] While the temple is under
construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered
sacerdotal by the patron as well as others witnessing the construction.[64] Further, it was a
tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative
work had the sanction of a sacrament.[22] For example, if a
carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would
propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it
from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to
cut the tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree.[34] Even in modern times, in
some parts of India such as Odisha, Visvakarma
Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship
their arts, tools and materials.[69]
The social functions of Hindu Temple
Hindu temples served as nucleus of
important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and
medieval India.[70][71] Burton Stein states that South Indian
temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects,
land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid
for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees.[7] Temples also managed
lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide
employment to the poorest.[72]Some temples had large
treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.[73]
In contemporary times, the process of
building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also
served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce
prejudice and seek civil rights together.[74]
Library of manuscripts
John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu
temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for
learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out.[75] In South India, temples
and associated mutts served custodial
functions, and a large number of manuscripts on Hindu philosophy,
poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved
inside the temples.[76] Archaeological and
epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called Sarasvati-bhandara, dated possibly to early
12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples.[77]
Palm-leaf manuscripts called lontar in dedicated stone
libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia and in 10th
century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and Banteay Srei.[78]
Temple schools
Inscriptions from 4th century CE suggest
the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called Ghatikas or Mathas, where the Vedas were studied.[79] In south India, 9th
century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called Calaior Salai, and these provided free
boarding and lodging to students and scholars.[80] The temples linked to Bhakti movement in the early 2nd
millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins.[81] These assumed many
educational functions, including the exposition, recitation and public
discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts.[81] Some temple schools
offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts,
grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.[70][82] By the 8th century, Hindu
temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition
and Vedic recitals called Anyonyam.[70][82]
Styles
Hindu temples are found in diverse
locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles:
·
River bank and sea shore temples such as
Somnath.
Hindu deities, stepwell style.
Step well temples
In arid western parts of India, such as
Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk in wells that served
as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting
places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into earth
towards subterranean water, up to seven storey, and were part of a temple
complex.[88] These vav (literally,
stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous idols and
images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells
were named after Hindu deities; for example, Mata Bhavani Vav, Ankol Mata Vav,
Sikotari Vav and others.[88] The temple ranged from
being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These
stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st
millennium BC through 11th century AD. Of these, Rani-ki-vav, with hundreds of
art reliefs including many of Vishnu deity avatars, has been
declared a UNESCO World Heritage site.[89]
Cave Temples
The Indian rock-cut architecture evolved in Maharashtran
temple style in the 1st millennium AD. The temples are carved from a single
piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the
interior of a temple. Ellora Temple is an example of
the former, while TheElephanta
Caves are representative of the
latter style.[citation needed] The Elephanta Caves consist of two groups of
caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a
smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone
sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.
Arts inside Hindu temples
Illustration of
Chitrardha style of art work in a Hindu temple.
A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a
profusion of arts - from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to
engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles
with Hindu sense of time and cardinality.
Ancient Sanskrit texts classify idols and
images in number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the
dimensionality of completion:[90]
·
chitra - images that are 3-dimensional and
completely formed,
·
chitrardha - images that are engraved in
half relief,
·
chitrabhasa - images that are 2-dimensional
such as paintings on walls and cloths.
Images and idols inside Hindu temples vary
widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images express destruction, fear and
violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images express joy,
knowledge and harmony, such as Saraswati image on right. Saumya images are most
common in Hindu temples.
Another way of classification is by the
expressive state of the image:
·
raudra or ugra - are images that were meant
to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry
weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were worshipped by
soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or errors.
Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably
outside and in remote areas of a kingdom.[90]
·
shanta and saumya - are images that were
pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other
virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge,
music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these
temples were predominant inside villages and towns.[90]
A Hindu temple may or may not include an
idol or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home
or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of
anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him
or her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao,[90] one who has realised Self
and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or
divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height
of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images, idols and icons
as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in
the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For
example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:[90]
शिवमात्मनि पश्यन्ति प्रतिमासु न योगिनः |
अज्ञानं भावनार्थाय प्रतिमाः परिकल्पिताः || ५९ ||
- जाबालदर्शनोपनिषत्
अज्ञानं भावनार्थाय प्रतिमाः परिकल्पिताः || ५९ ||
- जाबालदर्शनोपनिषत्
A yogin perceives god (Siva) within
himself,
images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59)
images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59)
Historical development and destruction
A number of ancient Indian texts suggest
the prevalence of idols, temples and shrines in Indian subcontinent for
thousands of years. For example, the 4th century BC text, Astadhyayi mentions male deity arcas (images/idols) of Agni,
Indra, Varuna, Rudra, Mrda, Pusa, Surya, Soma being worshipped, as well as the
worship of arcas of female goddesses such as Indrani, Varunani, Usa, Bhavani,
Prthivi and Vrsakapayi.[92] The 2nd Century BC
‘‘Mahabhasya’’ of Patanjali extensively describes temples of Dhanapati (deity of wealth and
finance, Kubera), as well as temples of Rama and Kesava, wherein the worship
included dance, music and extensive rituals. The Mahabhasya also describes the
rituals for Krsna, Visnu and Siva. An image recovered from Mathura in north
India has been dated to the 2nd century BC.[92]Kautilya’s Arthasastra from 3rd Century BC
describes a city of temples, each enshrining various Vedic and Puranic deities.
All three of these sources have common names, describe common rituals,
symbolism and significance possibly suggesting that the idea of idols, temples
and shrines passed from one generation to next, in ancient India, at least from
the 4th century BC.[92] The oldest temples,
suggest scholars, were built of brick and wood. Stone became the preferred
material of construction later.[93][94]
Early Jainism and Buddhism literature,
along with Kautilya’s Arthasastra, describe structures, embellishments and
designs of these temples - all with motifs and deities currently prevalent in
Hinduism. Bas-reliefs and idols have been found from 2nd to 3rd Century, but
none of the temple structures have survived. Scholars[92] theorize that those
ancient temples of India, later referred to as Hindu temples, were modeled
after domestic structure - a house or a palace. Beyond shrines, nature was
revered, in forms such as trees, rivers, stupas before the time of Buddha and
Vardhamana Mahavira. As Jainism and Buddhism branched off from the religious
tradition later to be called Hinduism, the ideas, designs and plans of ancient
Vedic and Upanishad era shrines were adopted and evolved, likely from the
competitive development of temples and arts in Jainism and Buddhism. Ancient
reliefs found so far, states Michael Meister,[92] suggest five basic shrine
designs and combinations thereof in 1st millennium BC:
1.
A raised platform with or without a symbol
2.
A raised platform under an umbrella
3.
A raised platform under a tree
4.
A raised platform enclosed with a railing
5.
A raised platform inside a pillared
pavilion
Many of these ancient shrines were
roofless, some had toranas and roof.
Ladkhan Shiva Temple in
Karnataka from the 5th century.
From the 1st century BC through 3rd Century
AD, the evidence and details about ancient temples increases. The ancient
literature refers to these temples as Pasada (or Prasada), stana, mahasthana, devalaya, devagrha, devakula, devakulika, ayatana and harmya.[92] The entrance of the
temple is referred to as dvarakosthaka in these ancient texts
notes Meister,[92] the temple hall is
described as sabha orayagasabha,
pillars were called kumbhaka, while vedika referred to the
structures at the boundary of a temple.
A 7th century Chalukyan
style temple ceiling in Karnataka
With the start of Gupta dynasty in the 4th
century, Hindu temples flourished in innovation, design, scope, form, use of
stone and new materials as well as symbolic synthesis of culture and dharmic principles with artistic
expression.[95][96] It is this period that is
credited with the ideas of garbhagrha for Purusa, mandapa for sheltering
the devotees and rituals in progress, as well as symbolic motifs relating to
dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Temple superstructures were built from
stone, brick and wide range of materials. Entrance ways, walls and pillars were
intricately carved, while parts of temple were decorated with gold, silver and
jewels. Visnu, Siva and other deities were placed in Hindu temples, while
Buddhists and Jains built their own temples, often side by side with Hindus.[97]
The 4th through 6th century marked the
flowering of Vidharbha style, whose
accomplishments survive in central India as Ajanta caves, Pavnar, Mandhal and
Mahesvar. In South India, this period is credited with some of the earliest
stone temples of the region, with Chalukya temples dated to be from the 5th
century by some scholars,[98] and the 6th by some
others.[99] Over 6th and 7th century,
temple designs were further refined during Maurya dynasty, evidence of which
survives today at Ellora and Elephanta.
Many Hindu temples were
destroyed and the remains used to rebuild Islamic mosques between 12th and 18th
century AD. Above drawing byJames Prinsep (1832) shows an overlay
of a mosque built over the ancient Hindu Vishveshvur temple.
It is the 5th through 7th century AD when
outer design and appearances of Hindu temples in north India and south India
began to widely diverge.[100] Nevertheless, the forms,
theme, symbolism and central ideas in the grid design remained same, before and
after, pan-India as innovations were adopted to give distinctly different
visual expressions.
During the 5th to 11th century, Hindu
temples flourished outside Indian subcontinent, such as in Cambodia, Viet Nam,
Malaysia and Indonesia.
Destruction and
conversion
With the arrival of Islam in South Asia,
Hindu temples along with the temples of Buddhists and Jains, became targets of
Islamic armies. Idols were broken up and damaged. Spires and pillars were torn
down by the invading armies from Persia, Central Asia and resident Sultans.
Temples were looted of their treasury and parts reused to build or to convert
the temples into mosques.[101] During some periods,
Muslim emperors such as Akbar encouraged arts, helped repair and protect Hindu
temples. In other periods, the Sultans and emperors led a campaign of temple
destruction as well as forbade repairs to damaged temples.[102] Richard Eaton has listed
80 campaigns of Hindu temple site destruction stretching over centuries,
particularly from the 12th through the 18th century.[103] The religious conflict
and desecrations continued during the British colonial era.[104]
The destruction of Hindu temple sites was
comparatively less in the southern parts of India, such as in Tamil Nadu. Cave
style Hindu temples that were carved inside a rock, hidden and rediscovered
centuries later, such as the Kailasha Temple, have also survived. These are now
UNESCO world heritage sites.[105]
Customs and etiquette
The customs and etiquette varies across
India. Devotees in major temples may bring in symbolic
offerings for the puja. This includesfruits, flowers, sweets and
other symbols of the bounty of the natural world. Temples in India are usually
surrounded with small shops selling these offerings.
When inside the temple, devotees keep both
hands folded (namaste mudra). The inner
sanctuary, where the murtis reside, is known as the garbhagriha. It symbolizes the
birthplace of the universe, the meeting place of the gods and mankind, and the
threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds.[106] It is in this inner
shrine that devotees seek a darsana of, where they offer prayers. Devotees may
or may not be able to personally present their offerings at the feet of the
deity. In most large Indian temples, only thepujaris (priest) are allowed to
enter into the main sanctum.[107]
Temple management staff typically announce
the hours of operation, including timings for special pujas. These timings
and nature of special puja vary from temple to temple. Additionally, there may
be specially allotted times for devotees to perform circumambulations (orpradakshina) around
the temple.[107]
Visitors and worshipers to large Hindu
temples may be required to deposit their shoes and other footwear before entering.
Where this is expected, the temples provide an area and help staff to store
footwear. Dress codes vary. It is customary in temples in Kerala, for men to
remove shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth known as a Vasthiram.[108] In Java and Bali
(Indonesia), before one enters the most sacred parts of a Hindu temple, shirts
are required as well as Sarong around one's waist.[109] At many other locations,
this formality is unnecessary.
Regional variations in Hindu temples
North Indian temples
North Indian temples are referred to as
Nagara style of temple architecture.[110] They have sanctum sanctorum where the deity is
present, open on one side from where the devotee obtains darśana. There may or may not be
many more surrounding corridors, halls, etc. However, there will be space for
devotees to go around the temple in clockwise fashion circumambulation. In
North Indian temples, the tallest towers are built over the sanctum sanctorum in which the deity is
installed.[111]
The north India Nagara style of temple
designs often deploy fractal-theme, where
smaller parts of the temple are themselves images or geometric re-arrangement
of the large temple, a concept found in French and Russian architecture such as
the matryoshka principle. One difference
is the scope and cardinality, where Hindu temple structures deploy this
principle in every dimension with garbhgriya as the primary locus, and each
pada as well as zones serving as additional centers of loci. This makes a
Nagara Hindu temple architecture symbolically a perennial expression of
movement and time, of centrifugal growth fused with the idea of unity in
everything.[110]
Temples in West Bengal
In West Bengal, the Bengali
terra cotta temple architecture is found. Due to lack of
suitable stone in the alluvial soil locally available, the temple makers had to
resort to other materials instead of stone. This gave rise to using terracotta as a medium for temple construction.
Terracotta exteriors with rich carvings are a unique feature of Bengali
temples. The town of Vishnupur in West Bengal is
renowned for this type of architecture. There is also a popular style of
building known as Navaratna (nine-towered) or
Pancharatna (five-towered). An example of Navaratna style is the Dakshineswar Kali Temple.[112]
Temples in Odisha
Odisha temple architecture is
known as Kalinga
architecture, classifies the spire into three parts, theBāḍa (lower limb), the Ganḍi (body) and the Cuḷa/Mastaka (head). Each part is
decorated in a different manner. Kalinga
architecture is a style which
flourished in Kalinga, the name for kingdom that included ancient Odisha. It
includes three styles: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.[113] The former two are
associated with Vishnu,Surya and Shiva temples while the third
is mainly associated with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deulahouses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula style includes space for
outer dancing and offering halls.
Temples of Goa and other Konkani temples
Saptakoteshwar Temple in
Goa
The temple architecture of Goa is quite
unique. As Portuguese colonial hegemony increased, Goan Hindu temples became
the rallying point to local resistance.[114] Many these temples are
not more than 500 years old, and are a unique blend of original Goan temple
architecture, Dravidian, Nagar and Hemadpanthi temple styles with some British and Portuguese architectural influences. Goan temples
were built using sedimentary rocks, wood, limestone and clay tiles, and copper
sheets were used for the roofs. These temples were decorated with mural art
called as Kavi kala or ocher art. The interiors have
murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the Hindu mythology.
South Indian temples
The
gopuram (tower) of Natarajar Temple, a typical South Indian
temple complex in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu.
South Indian temples have a large gopuram,
a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of the temple. This forms a
prominent feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian style.[115] They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They
function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.[116] The gopuram's origins can
be traced back to early structures of the Tamil kings Pallavas; and by the
twelfth century, under thePandya rulers, these gateways
became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually
overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the
gopuram's colossal size.[117] It also dominated the
inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one
gopuram.[118] They also appear in
architecture outside India, especially Khmer
architecture, as at Angkor Wat. A koil
may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers
around the main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer
most wall having gopuras. The sanctum sanctorium and its towering roof (the
central deity's shrine) are also called thevimanam.[119] The inner sanctum has
restricted access with only priests allowed beyond a certain point.
Temples in Tamil Nadu
Temple construction reached its peak during
rule of Pallavas. They build
various temples around Kancheepuram and Narasimhavarman
IIbuilt the Shore Temple in Mamallapuram which is
a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Pandyas rule created temples such
as theMeenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar
Temple at Tirunelveli.[120] The Cholas were prolific
temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king Vijayalaya Chola.
The Chola temples include Nataraja temple at Chidambaram,
the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam, the Brihadeshvara
Temple of Thanjavur, Brihadeshvara
Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
and the Airavatesvara
Temple of Darasuram which are
among the UNESCO World
Heritage Sites. The Nayaks of Madurai reconstructed some of the
well-known temples in Tamil Nadu such as the Meenakshi Temple.[5][121]
Temples in Cambodia
Angkor Wat was built as a Hindu
temple by King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura
(Khmer, present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state
temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous
kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. The Spire in Khmer Hindu
temple is called Giri (mountain) and symbolizes the residence of gods just like
Meru does in Bali Hindu mythology and Ku (Guha) does in Burmese Hindu
mythology.[122]
Angkor Wat is just one of numerous Hindu
temples in Cambodia, most of them in ruins. Hundreds of Hindu temples are
scattered from Siem Reap to Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodian region.[123]
Temples in Vietnam
There are a number of Hindu temple clusters
along the coast of Vietnam, with some on UNESCO world heritage site list.[124] Examples include Mỹ Sơn - a cluster of 70 temples
with earliest dated to be from the 4th century AD and dedicated to Siva, while
others are dedicated to Hindu deities Krishna, Vishnu and others. These
temples, internally and with respect to each other, are also built on the Hindu
perfect square grid concept. Other sites in Vietnam with Hindu temples include
Phan Rang with the Cham temple Po Klong Garai.[125]
Temples in Indonesia
Hindu temples of ancient Java, Indonesia, bear
resemblances with temples of South Indian style. The largest of these is the
9th century Javanese Hindu temple, Prambanan in Yogyakarta, now a
UNESCO world heritage site. It was designed as three concentric squares and has
224 temples. The inner square contains 16 temples dedicated to major Hindu
deities, of which Siva temple is the largest. The temple has extensive wall
reliefs and carvings illustrating the stories from the Hindu EpicRamayana.[126]
In Bali, Pura (Balinese temple) is designed as an
open-air worship place in a walled compound. The compound walls have a series
of intricately decorated gates without doors for the devotee to enter. The
design, plan and layout of the holy pura follows a square layout.[127][128]
Temples outside Asia
Many members of the South Asian diaspora
have established Hindu mandirs outside India as a means of preserving and
celebrating cultural and spiritual heritage abroad. Describing the hundreds of
mandirs that can be found throughout the United States, scholar Gail M. Harley
observes, “The temples serve as central locations where Hindus can come
together to worship during holy festivals and socialize with other Hindus.
Temples in America reflect the colorful kaleidoscopic aspects contained in
Hinduism while unifying people who are disbursed throughout the American
landscape.”[129] Numerous mandirs in North
America and Europe have gained particular prominence and acclaim.
Temple Management
The Archaeological Survey of India has control of most
ancient temples of archaeological importance in India. In India, day-to-day
activities of a temple is managed by a temple board committee that administers its finances, management
and events. Since independence, the autonomy of individual Hindu religious
denominations to manage their own affairs with respect to temples of their own
denomination have been severely eroded and the state governments have taken
control of major Hindu temples.
The following are the other names by which
a Hindu temple is referred to in India:
·
Gudi (గుడి), Devalayam (దేవాలయం), Devasthanam (దేవస్థానము), Kovela (కోవెల), Kshetralayam (క్షేత్రాలయం),Punyakshetram (పుణ్యక్షేత్రం), or Punyakshetralayam (పుణ్యక్షేత్రాలయం) in Telugu
·
Kovil or kō-vill (கோவில்) and occasionally Aalayam (ஆலயம்) in Tamil; the Tamil
word Kovil means "residence of
God"[131] and is used for a
distinct style of Hindu temple with Dravidian architecture
In Southeast Asia temples known as:
·
Candi in Indonesia,
especially in Javanese, Malay and Indonesian,
used both for Hindu or Buddhist temples.
Temple sites
Some lands, including Varanasi, Puri,
Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, Mathura and Rameswara, are
considered holy in Hinduism. They are called kṣétra(Sanskrit: क्षेत्र[134]). A kṣétra has many
temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location
attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).[135]
Labels: General information
posted by dayanandnene @ October 24, 2015
1 Comments
1 Comments:
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